Exploring The Potential of Human Papilloma Virus: An Overview
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.55489/njcm.141220233369Keywords:
Human Papillomavirus (HPV), Sexually Transmitted Disease, Epidemiology, Cervical Cancer, HPV vaccinationAbstract
Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is the most frequent viral sexually transmitted infection in the world. HPV is currently the most prevalent infection responsible for female cancers, with more than 90% of cervical cancers - the fourth deadliest malignancy in women- having been diagnosed. Additionally, genital and upper aerodigestive tract malignancies, as well as cutaneous and anogenital warts, are also linked to HPV infection. Cervical screening programs that are organized have the potential to be more effective than opportunistic screening programs. Nonetheless, screening programs have consistently been linked to lower cervical cancer incidence and mortality. Over the last 40 years, developed countries have achieved such a reduction in cervical cancer incidence and mortality. This is largely because of organized cytological screening and immunization programs. In women with no indication of previous or current HPV infection, HPV vaccinations are very efficient at preventing infection and illnesses caused by vaccine-specific genotypes. Despite the effective implementation of the HPV vaccination program in many nations around the world, challenges with HPV prevention and treatment of linked diseases will persist in developing and poor countries. This review provides an insight into various aspects of HPV infection.
References
Forcier M, Musacchio N. An overview of human papillomavirus infection for the dermatologist: disease, diagnosis, management, and prevention. Dermatologic Therapy. 2010;23(5):458-76. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1529-8019.2010.01350.x PMid:20868401
Palefsky JM. Epidemiology of human papillomavirus infections. U: Bloom A, ur. UpToDate. UpToDate, Waltham, MA. 2016.
Handler MZ, Handler NS, Majewski S, Schwartz RA. Human papillomavirus vaccine trials and tribulations: clinical perspectives. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 2015;73(5):743-56. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2015.05.040 PMid:26475534
Nygård M, Saah A, Munk C, Tryggvadottir L, Enerly E, Hortlund M, et al.,. Evaluation of the long-term anti-human papillomavirus 6 (HPV6), 11, 16, and 18 immune responses generated by the quadrivalent HPV vaccine. Clinical and Vaccine Immunology. 2015;22(8):943-8. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1128/CVI.00133-15 PMid:26084514 PMCid:PMC4519713
Steben M, Duarte-Franco E. Human papillomavirus infection: epidemiology and pathophysiology. Gynecologic oncology. 2007;107(2):S2-5. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ygyno.2007.07.067 PMid:17938014
Scarinci IC, Garcia FA, Kobetz E, Partridge EE, Brandt HM, Bell MC, et al.,. Cervical cancer prevention: new tools and old barriers. Cancer: Interdisciplinary International Journal of the American Cancer Society. 2010;116(11):2531-42. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/cncr.25065 PMid:20310056 PMCid:PMC2876205
Asiaf A, Ahmad ST, Mohammad SO, Zargar MA. Review of the current knowledge on the epidemiology, pathogenesis, and prevention of human papillomavirus infection. European Journal of Cancer Prevention. 2014;23(3):206-24. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1097/CEJ.0b013e328364f273 PMid:24129107
Reid R, Stanhope CR, Herschman BR, Booth E, Phibbs GD, Smith JP. Genital warts and cervical cancer. I. Evidence of an association between subclinical papillomavirus infection and cervical malignancy. Cancer. 1982;50(2):377-87. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-0142(19820715)50:2<377::AID-CNCR2820500236>3.0.CO;2-A PMid:6282442
Bruni L, Albero G, Serrano B,MenaM, Gómez D,Muñoz J, et al. ICO/IARC information centre on HPV and cancer (HPV Information Centre). Human Papillomavirus and Related Diseases in the World. Summary Report 17 June 2019 (accessed September 15, 2019) (2019) (updated 2019-07-27 08:33:24).
Bray F, Ferlay J, Soerjomataram I, Siegel RL, Torre LA, Jemal A. Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA: a cancer journal for clinicians. 2018;68(6):394-424. Doi: https://doi.org/10.3322/caac.21492 PMid:30207593
Fonseca-Moutinho JA. Smoking and cervical cancer. International Scholarly Research Notices. 2011;2011. Doi: https://doi.org/10.5402/2011/847684 PMid:21785734 PMCid:PMC3140050
Arbyn M, Castellsagué X, de Sanjosé S, Bruni L, Saraiya M, Bray F, et al.,. Worldwide burden of cervical cancer in 2008. Annals of on-cology. 2011;22(12):2675-86. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/annonc/mdr015 PMid:21471563
Jing Y, Wang T, Chen Z, Ding X, Xu J, Mu X, et al.,. Phylogeny and polymorphism in the long control regions E6, E7, and L1 of HPV Type 56 in women from southwest China. Molecular medicine reports. 2018;17(5):7131-41. Doi: https://doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2018.8743 PMid:29568922 PMCid:PMC5928666
Haley CT, Mui UN, Vangipuram R, Rady PL, Tyring SK. Human oncoviruses: Mucocutaneous manifestations, pathogenesis, therapeu-tics, and prevention: Papillomaviruses and Merkel cell polyomavirus. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 2019 ;81(1):1-21. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2018.09.062 PMid:30502418
Bernard HU, Burk RD, Chen Z, Van Doorslaer K, Zur Hausen H, de Villiers EM. Classification of papillomaviruses (PVs) based on 189 PV types and proposal of taxonomic amendments. Virology. 2010;401(1):70-9. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virol.2010.02.002 PMid:20206957 PMCid:PMC3400342
Burk RD, Harari A, Chen Z. Human papillomavirus genome variants. Virology. 2013 ;445(1-2):232-43. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virol.2013.07.018 PMid:23998342 PMCid:PMC3979972
Pande S, Jain N, Prusty BK, Bhambhani S, Gupta S, Sharma R, Batra S, Das BC. Human papillomavirus type 16 variant analysis of E6, E7, and L1 genes and long control region in biopsy samples from cervical cancer patients in north India. Journal of clinical microbi-ology. 2008;46(3):1060-6. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.02202-07 PMid:18199779 PMCid:PMC2268386
Ramas V, Mirazo S, Bonilla S, Ruchansky D, Arbiza J. Analysis of human papillomavirus 16 E6, E7 genes and Long Control Region in cervical samples from Uruguayan women. Gene. 2018;654:103-9. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gene.2018.02.023 PMid:29454092
Lehoux M, D'Abramo CM, Archambault J. Molecular mechanisms of human papillomavirus-induced carcinogenesis. Public health ge-nomics. 2009;12(5-6):268-80. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1159/000214918 PMid:19684440 PMCid:PMC4654617
Moscicki AB, Schiffman M, Kjaer S, Villa LL. Updating the natural history of HPV and anogenital cancer. Vaccine. 2006 ;24:S42-51. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.06.018 PMid:16950017
Wiley D, Masongsong E. Human papillomavirus: the burden of infection. Obstetrical & gynecological survey. 2006;61(6):S3-14. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1097/01.ogx.0000221010.82943.8c PMid:16729902
Wang R, Pan W, Jin L, Huang W, Li Y, Wu D, et al.,. Human papillomavirus vaccine against cervical cancer: Opportunity and challenge. Cancer letters. 2020;471:88-102. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.canlet.2019.11.039 PMid:31812696
Burd EM. Human papillomavirus and cervical cancer. Clinical microbiology reviews. 2003;16(1):1-7. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.16.1.1-17.2003 PMid:12525422 PMCid:PMC145302
Ferlay J, Colombet M, Soerjomataram I, Parkin DM, Piñeros M, Znaor A, et al.,. Cancer statistics for the year 2020: An overview. In-ternational journal of cancer. 2021;149(4):778-89. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.33588 PMid:33818764
Ferlay J, Soerjomataram I, Dikshit R, Eser S, Mathers C, Rebelo M, et al.,. Cancer incidence and mortality worldwide: sources, meth-ods and major patterns in GLOBOCAN 2012. International journal of cancer. 2015;136(5):E359-86. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.29210 PMid:25220842
Insinga RP, Dasbach EJ, Elbasha EH. Epidemiologic natural history and clinical management of Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Disease: a critical and systematic review of the literature in the development of an HPV dynamic transmission model. BMC infectious diseas-es. 2009;9(1):1-26. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2334-9-119 PMid:19640281 PMCid:PMC2728100
Markowitz LE, Dunne EF, Saraiya M, Chesson HW, Curtis CR, Gee J, et al.,. Human papillomavirus vaccination: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report: Recommendations and Re-ports. 2014;63(5):1-30.
Antonsson A, Karanfilovska S, Lindqvist PG, Hansson BG. General acquisition of human papillomavirus infections of skin occurs in early infancy. Journal of clinical microbiology. 2003;41(6):2509-14. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.41.6.2509-2514.2003 PMid:12791874 PMCid:PMC156491
Sacks RJ, Copas AJ, Wilkinson DM, Robinson AJ. Uptake of the HPV vaccination programme in England: a cross-sectional survey of young women attending sexual health services. Sexually transmitted infections. 2014;90(4):315-21. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1136/sextrans-2013-051179 PMid:24636998
Verdoodt F, Jentschke M, Hillemanns P, Racey CS, Snijders PJ, Arbyn M. Reaching women who do not participate in the regular cervi-cal cancer screening programme by offering self-sampling kits: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised trials. Euro-pean journal of cancer. 2015;51(16):2375-85. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejca.2015.07.006 PMid:26296294
Clifford GM, Gallus S, Herrero R, Munoz N, Snijders PJ, Vaccarella S, Anh PT, Ferreccio C, Hieu NT, Matos E, Molano M. Worldwide distribution of human papillomavirus types in cytologically normal women in the International Agency for Research on Cancer HPV prevalence surveys: a pooled analysis. The Lancet. 2005;366(9490):991-8. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67069-9 PMid:16168781
Bruni L, Diaz M, Castellsagué M, Ferrer E, Bosch FX, de Sanjosé S. Cervical human papillomavirus prevalence in 5 continents: meta-analysis of 1 million women with normal cytological findings. Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2010;202(12):1789-99. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1086/657321 PMid:21067372
Chan CK, Aimagambetova G, Ukybassova T, Kongrtay K, Azizan A. Human papillomavirus infection and cervical cancer: epidemiolo-gy, screening, and vaccination-review of current perspectives. Journal of oncology. 2019 ;10;2019. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/3257939 PMid:31687023 PMCid:PMC6811952
Perera E, Gnaneswaran N, Staines C, Win AK, Sinclair R. Incidence and prevalence of non‐melanoma skin cancer in A ustralia: A sys-tematic review. Australasian Journal of Dermatology. 2015;56(4):258-67. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/ajd.12282 PMid:25716064
Bansal D, Elmi AA, Skariah S, Haddad P, Abu-Raddad LJ, Al Hamadi AH, Mohamed-Nady N, Affifi NM, Ghedira R, Hassen E, Al-Thani AA. Molecular epidemiology and genotype distribution of Human Papillomavirus (HPV) among Arab women in the State of Qatar. Journal of translational medicine. 2014;12:1-9. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12967-014-0300-4 PMid:25424736 PMCid:PMC4251937
Niyazmetova L, Aimagambetova G, Stambekova N, Abugalieva Z, Seksembayeva K, Ali S, Azizan A. Application of molecular genotyp-ing to determine prevalence of HPV strains in Pap smears of Kazakhstan women. International Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2017 1;54:85-8. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2016.11.410 PMid:27894986
Kangmennaang J, Onyango EO, Luginaah I, Elliott SJ. The next Sub Saharan African epidemic? A case study of the determinants of cer-vical cancer knowledge and screening in Kenya. Social Science & Medicine. 2018;197:203-12. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.12.013 PMid:29253722
Elorbany S, Helwa R, El-Shalakany A, El-din ZS. Prevalence and Genotype Distribution of Human Papillomavirus Types in Egyptian Women with Cervical Carcinoma and Pre-Invasive Cervical Lesions. International Journal of Cancer Research. 2013;47(2):1176.
Muñoz N, Bosch FX, De Sanjosé S, Herrero R, Castellsagué X, Shah KV, Snijders PJ, Meijer CJ. Epidemiologic classification of human papillomavirus types associated with cervical cancer. New England journal of medicine. 2003;348(6):518-27. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa021641 PMid:12571259
Petca A, Borislavschi A, Zvanca ME, Petca RC, Sandru F, Dumitrascu MC. Non-sexual HPV transmission and role of vaccination for a better future. Experimental and therapeutic medicine. 2020;20(6):1-. Doi: https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2020.9316 PMid:33101476 PMCid:PMC7579832
Manini I, Montomoli E. Epidemiology and prevention of Human Papillomavirus. Ann Ig. 2018;30(4):28-32.
Sabeena S, Bhat P, Kamath V, Arunkumar G. Possible non‐sexual modes of transmission of human papilloma virus. Journal of Obstet-rics and Gynaecology Research. 2017;43(3):429-35. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/jog.13248 PMid:28165175
Liu ZC, Liu WD, Liu YH, Ye XH, Chen SD. Multiple sexual partners as a potential independent risk factor for cervical cancer: a meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention. 2015;16(9):3893-900. Doi: https://doi.org/10.7314/APJCP.2015.16.9.3893 PMid:25987056
Schiffman M, Doorbar J, Wentzensen N, De Sanjosé S, Fakhry C, Monk BJ, Stanley MA, Franceschi S. Carcinogenic human papilloma-virus infection. Nature reviews Disease primers. 2016;2(1):1-20. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/nrdp.2016.86 PMid:27905473
Lehoux M, D'Abramo CM, Archambault J. Molecular mechanisms of human papillomavirus-induced carcinogenesis. Public health ge-nomics. 2009 Aug 1;12(5-6):268-80. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1159/000214918 PMid:19684440 PMCid:PMC4654617
Stanley M. Pathology and epidemiology of HPV infection in females. Gynecologic oncology. 2010;117(2):S5-10. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ygyno.2010.01.024 PMid:20304221
Reid R, Stanhope CR, Herschman BR, Booth E, Phibbs GD, Smith JP. Genital warts and cervical cancer. I. Evidence of an association between subclinical papillomavirus infection and cervical malignancy. Cancer. 1982;50(2):377-87. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-0142(19820715)50:2<377::AID-CNCR2820500236>3.0.CO;2-A PMid:6282442
Lowy DR, Solomon D, Hildesheim A, Schiller JT, Schiffman M. Human papillomavirus infection and the primary and secondary pre-vention of cervical cancer. Cancer. 2008;113(S7):1980-93. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/cncr.23704 PMid:18798536 PMCid:PMC6263938
Argyri E, Tsimplaki E, Daskalopoulou D, Stravopodis DJ, Kouikoglou O, Terzakis E, Panotopoulou E. E6/E7 mRNA expression of high-risk HPV types in 849 Greek women. Anticancer research. 2013;33(9):4007-11.
Zhang B, Chen W, Roman A. The E7 proteins of low-and high-risk human papillomaviruses share the ability to target the pRB family member p130 for degradation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2006;103(2):437-42. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0510012103 PMid:16381817 PMCid:PMC1326189
Katzenellenbogen R. Telomerase induction in HPV infection and oncogenesis. Viruses. 2017;9(7):180. Doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/v9070180 PMid:28698524 PMCid:PMC5537672
Groves IJ, Coleman N. Pathogenesis of human papillomavirus‐associated mucosal disease. The Journal of pathology. 2015;235(4):527-38. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/path.4496 PMid:25604863
Lee SS, Weiss RS, Javier RT. Binding of human virus oncoproteins to hDlg/SAP97, a mammalian homolog of the Drosophila discs large tumor suppressor protein. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 1997;94(13):6670-5. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.94.13.6670 PMid:9192623 PMCid:PMC21216
Glaunsinger BA, Lee SS, Thomas M, Banks L, Javier R. Interactions of the PDZ-protein MAGI-1 with adenovirus E4-ORF1 and high-risk papillomavirus E6 oncoproteins. Oncogene. 2000;19(46):5270-80. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.onc.1203906 PMid:11077444 PMCid:PMC3072458
Nakagawa S, Huibregtse JM. Human scribble (Vartul) is targeted for ubiquitin-mediated degradation by the high-risk papilloma-virus E6 proteins and the E6AP ubiquitin-protein ligase. Molecular and cellular biology. 2000;20(21):8244-53. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1128/MCB.20.21.8244-8253.2000 PMid:11027293 PMCid:PMC86433
Schiffman M, Doorbar J, Wentzensen N, De Sanjosé S, Fakhry C, Monk BJ, Stanley MA, Franceschi S. Carcinogenic human papilloma-virus infection. Nature reviews Disease primers. 2016;2(1):1-20. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/nrdp.2016.86 PMid:27905473
Burd EM. Human papillomavirus laboratory testing: the changing paradigm. Clinical microbiology reviews. 2016;29(2):291-319. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00013-15 PMid:26912568 PMCid:PMC4786885
Hewavisenti RV, Arena J, Ahlenstiel CL, Sasson SC. Human papillomavirus in the setting of immunodeficiency: Pathogenesis and the emergence of next-generation therapies to reduce the high associated cancer risk. Frontiers in Immunology. 2023;14:1112513. Doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2023.1112513 PMid:36960048 PMCid:PMC10027931
Kirby P, Dunne A, King DH, Corey L. Double-blind randomized clinical trial of self-administered podofilox solution versus vehicle in the treatment of genital warts. The American journal of medicine. 1990;88(5):465-9. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9343(90)90424-C PMid:2186623
Azizjalali M, Ghaffarpour GH, Mousavifard B. CO2 Laser therapy versus cryotherapy in treatment of genital warts; a Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT). Iranian journal of microbiology. 2012;4(4):187.
Marchetti C, Fagotti A, Tombolini V, Scambia G, De Felice F. Survival and toxicity in neoadjuvant chemotherapy plus surgery versus definitive chemoradiotherapy for cervical cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Cancer treatment reviews. 2020;83:101945. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctrv.2019.101945 PMid:31838220
Haanen JB, Carbonnel F, Robert C, Kerr KM, Peters S, Larkin J, Jordan K. Corrections to "Management of toxicities from immunother-apy: ESMO Clinical Practice Guidelines for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up. Annals of Oncology. 2018;29:iv264-6. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/annonc/mdy162 PMid:29917046
Barra F, Lorusso D, Leone Roberti Maggiore U, Ditto A, Bogani G, Raspagliesi F, Ferrero S. Investigational drugs for the treatment of cervical cancer. Expert Opinion on Investigational Drugs. 2017;26(4):389-402. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/13543784.2017.1302427 PMid:28274154
Trimbos JB, Franchi M, Zanaboni F, Velden JV, Vergote I. 'State of the art'of radical hysterectomy; current practice in European on-cology centres. European journal of cancer. 2004;40(3):375-8. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejca.2003.09.017 PMid:14746855
De Felice F, Marchetti C, Palaia I, Ostuni R, Muzii L, Tombolini V, Panici PB. Immune check-point in cervical cancer. Critical reviews in oncology/hematology. 2018;129:40-3. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.critrevonc.2018.06.006 PMid:30097236
Garland SM, Smith JS. Human papillomavirus vaccines: current status and future prospects. Drugs. 2010;70:1079-98. Doi: https://doi.org/10.2165/10898580-000000000-00000 PMid:20518577
Tyler Cole BS, Thomas MC, Straup BK, Savage A. How to increase HPV vaccination rates. Clinician Reviews. 2017;27(9):40-6.
McCormack PL. Quadrivalent human papillomavirus (types 6, 11, 16, 18) recombinant vaccine (Gardasil®): a review of its use in the prevention of premalignant anogenital lesions, cervical and anal cancers, and genital warts. Drugs. 2014;74(11):1253-83. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40265-014-0255-z PMid:25022951
Schiller J, Lowy D. Explanations for the high potency of HPV prophylactic vaccines. Vaccine. 2018 ;36(32):4768-73. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2017.12.079 PMid:29325819 PMCid:PMC6035892
Nygård M, Saah A, Munk C, Tryggvadottir L, Enerly E, Hortlund M, Sigurdardottir LG, Vuocolo S, Kjaer SK, Dillner J. Evaluation of the long-term anti-human papillomavirus 6 (HPV6), 11, 16, and 18 immune responses generated by the quadrivalent HPV vaccine. Clin-ical and Vaccine Immunology. 2015;22(8):943-8. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1128/CVI.00133-15 PMid:26084514 PMCid:PMC4519713
Östör AG. Natural history of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia: a critical review. International journal of gynecological pathology. 1993;12(2):186. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1097/00004347-199304000-00018 PMid:8463044
Wheeler CM, Kjaer SK, Sigurdsson K, Iversen OE, Hernandez-Avila M, Perez G, Brown DR, Koutsky LA, Tay EH, García P, Ault KA. The impact of quadrivalent human papillomavirus (HPV; types 6, 11, 16, and 18) L1 virus-like particle vaccine on infection and disease due to oncogenic nonvaccine HPV types in sexually active women aged 16-26 years. The Journal of infectious diseases. 2009;199(7):936-44. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1086/597309 PMid:19236277
Maldonado I, Plata M, Gonzalez M, Correa A, Nossa C, Giuliano AR, Joura EA, Ferenczy A, Ronnett BM, Stoler MH, Jin Zhou H. Effec-tiveness, immunogenicity, and safety of the quadrivalent HPV vaccine in women and men aged 27-45 years. Human Vaccines & Im-munotherapeutics. 2022;18(5):2078626. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/21645515.2022.2078626 PMid:35853188 PMCid:PMC9481115
Cutts FT, Franceschi S, Goldie S, Castellsague XD, De Sanjose S, Garnett G, Edmunds WJ, Claeys P, Goldenthal KL, Harper DM, Marko-witz L. Human papillomavirus and HPV vaccines: a review. Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 2007;85:719-26. Doi: https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.06.038414 PMid:18026629 PMCid:PMC2636411
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Human Papillomavirus Vaccination: ACOG Committee Opinion, Number 809. Obstetrics and gynecology. 2020;136(2):e15-21. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000004000 PMid:32732766
Tota JE, Ramanakumar AV, Jiang M, Dillner J, Walter SD, Kaufman JS, Coutlée F, Villa LL, Franco EL. Epidemiologic approaches to eval-uating the potential for human papillomavirus type replacement postvaccination. American journal of epidemiology. 2013;178(4):625-34. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwt018 PMid:23660798 PMCid:PMC3736757
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2023 Gopinath Ramalingam, M Arundadhi, R Revathi, Sowndarya Vijay, A Dhanasezhian, G Sucila Thangam
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
The authors retain the copyright of their article, with first publication rights granted to Medsci Publications.
